MONKS AND MONASTERIES: WHERE DID THEY COME FROM?
A Brief Description of the Origins and Early Development of Monastic Life
Jason Caros | July 3, 2024
Note: The essay just below is an historical sketch of the rise of monastic life in the early church. It is followed by an essay/personal reflection from a brother in Christ about The Holy Mountain (aka Mount Athos) and Athonite Monasticism.
What is a monk? The words monk and monastery come from the Greek word, monachos, which means “solitary.” Following the etymology, monks are those men and women who leave the hustle and bustle of daily life in “the world” and choose instead to lead a more ascetic and quieter way of life found in monasteries. Characterized by solitude and stillness, this monastic life aims at inner peace and union with God for the person who enters into it, but paradoxically, this mode of living has a wide impact on those who remain outside of the monasteries as well. During the third century, a good number of Christians began to leave the comforts and social confines of their villages or cities to lead more solitary and ascetic ways of life away from civilization, away from attachments to worldly things, and at times, away from religious persecution, and there began the Christian way of life known as monasticism.
Ascetism was not a new concept to the early Christians, nor should it be for today’s faithful. By studying The Bible one could learn about the lives of ascetics described in the Old and New Testaments such as Elijah, the prophet of The Lord, or the highly esteemed forerunner of The Lord, John the Baptizer. Both lived in the desert and had experiences in “the wilderness.” The Lord Jesus Christ Himself fasted in the desert for forty days before beginning His three-year public ministry, and afterwards He often retreated to mountains or into the wilderness to pray. Through the teachings of the early church (i.e. the Apostles, Apostolic fathers and the saints who followed, the exhortations in the divine services, Holy Scripture, etc.) Christians were taught about renunciation of the present order, denial of attachments and worldly riches, prayer, fasting, contemplation, etc. In fact, it was not uncommon for individuals or household groups to live out this standard. What was a development, however, was the emergence of a good number of Christians living in solitude in the deserts of places like Egypt as anchorites—from the Greek word, anachoresis,meaning “withdrawal.” As time went on and communities began to form among those who renounced the world, so to speak, bishops of the Church eventually became sponsors and organizers of monastic communities, and eventually products of this movement. To this day Eastern Orthodox bishops come from the ranks of monks.
One of the people associated with the founding of monasticism is Saint Anthony of Egypt who lived in the third and fourth centuries. In the Life of Anthony, written by the great defender of orthodoxy, Saint Athanasios, one can learn about a young and affluent Anthony who at age twenty was so motivated after reading the account in Matthew’s gospel [19:21] of The Lord Jesus Christ’s encounter with the rich man that he sold his inheritance and became a hermit. After living for twenty years in an old fort near the Red Sea he emerged from his seclusion a holy man. So great was his fame that people came from all around to learn from his wisdom and to be healed by him. Others gathered around him, and he became their spiritual guide or Abba, Aramaic for “papa.”
In the fourth century other communities developed in the deserts of Egypt, first in the Nitrian deserts and in Skete. By the time of St. Anthony’s death in the mid-fourth century there were thousands of ascetics in the deserts, male and female. Under a certain Abba named Saint Pachomios (A.D. 286-346), so-called cenobitic monasticism was founded and flourished. The cenobitic (koinos bios in Greek), or common life regimen, required all to live under a common schedule of prayer, work, meals, and contemplation of scripture. “The Rule” of Pachomios served as the foundational model for monasticism.
Syria was another center of early monasticism and appears to have developed independently of the Egyptian form. Early Syrian asceticism, like that in Egypt, did not consist of solitary monastic communities, but by the fourth and fifth centuries monasteries were plentiful. One way in which Syrian monasticism was different than Egyptian was their tendency toward more highly rigorous and anomalous asceticism. Their mortifications included activities such as wearing a heavy iron chain as a belt, relying on wild herbs and greenery for sustenance, living in the open air without shade from the sun and with minimal clothing, and living on top of pillars like Saint Symeon the Stylite (A.D. 390-459) who lived on a pillar for thirty years where he prayed and preached to pilgrims, including nobility. A famous monastic named Saint Ephraim the Syrian said the following about their ascetic practices: “They greatly afflict their bodies, not because they do not love their bodies; rather, they want to bring their bodies to Eden in glory" (On Hermits and Desert Dwellers).
The fourth century saw the spread of cenobitic monasticism to Syria, Palestine and Asia Minor where it was introduced by Eustathius of Sebaste. Eustathius was a friend of the Cappadocian, Saint Basil the Great, who played a major role in the spread of monasticism. St. Basil created a rule that would later influence the famous western monk, Saint Benedict of Nursia, and Basil’s “Longer Rules” and “Shorter Rules” still serve as the bases for Eastern Orthodox monasticism. St. Basil disapproved of extreme asceticism, added “obedience” to the common list of ascetic virtues, and encouraged monasteries to be built on the edge of cities to serve the people by providing an example of virtuous living, instruction, hospitality to travelers, and care for the poor and needy.
As for western Christians of the early church, they were first introduced to monasticism when St. Athanasios wrote St. Anthony’s biography. The book was written in Greek but was soon translated into Latin where Anthony’s example gained an even wider influence. In North Africa, St. Augustine of Hippo read it and it sparked his conversion. Soon monasteries began to develop in the west. Famous Christians associated with early monasticism in Western Europe were Sts. Martin of Tours, Eusebios of Vercelli, and Ambrose of Milan, but there was another church father who played an even greater role in the development of western monasticism and his name was St. John Cassian. St. John, who spent time in monasteries in Bethlehem and Egypt, had the distinction of serving under Saint John Chrysostom while the latter was Patriarch of Constantinople; he also served under St. Pope Innocent I in Rome. From Rome Cassian moved to Massalia, known today as Marseilles in France, where he founded two monasteries, one for men and the other for women. Around A.D. 429 he wrote his first book and his monastic rule, The Institutes of Cenobia, and a couple of years later, Conferences, a series of spiritual conferences with fifteen famous abbas of the desert. More than a century later, the famous St. Benedict of Nursia would borrow greatly from Cassian’s Institutes and would recommend that Institutes and Conferences be read aloud regularly while the monks were eating dinner.
In the sixth century, St. Benedict of Nursia’s rule, or The Rule of Benedict, would become the norm for western monasticism. Besides the large role Cassian’s works played in Benedict’s ideas, he was also influenced by the rules of Basil the Great, that of St. Pachomius, and a sixth century document known as The Rule of the Master. Benedict, who founded his monastery at Monte Cassino in Italy, asked his monks to abide by many canons, but had them make three important vows before entering the monastery: obedience, stability, and conversion of one’s behavior. Benedict’s idea was to create a stable, self-supporting monastery that followed a common life consisting of the seven daily offices, manual labor, and lectio divina.
Monasticism in Eastern Orthodox monasteries has changed little since the fourth century, maintaining its association with the rule of St. Basil. In the post-schism west, conversely, various Roman Catholic orders branched off the Benedictine Rule, sparked initially by tenth and eleventh century western monastic reforms leading to the Cluniac and Cistercian orders. They include Carthusians, Carmelites, Capuchins, Dominicans, Franciscans, and Jesuits, among others.
To learn more about Christian Orthodox monasticism, including answers to questions about the legacy and significance of monasticism, responses to modern utilitarian objections to monasticism, and for insights into eastern Christian ascetic spirituality, read The Mountain of Silence by Kyriakos Markides (1). To gain some additional insights about the lives and practices of contemporary ascetics on The Holy Mountain, watch the 60 Minutes television special on Mount Athos, available on YouTube. Finally, continue this introduction by reading the reflection below entitled “Heaven on Earth.”
Endnote:
1. This book largely consists of a dialogue between Markides, a sociologist, and an Athonite monk. Note that Markides' writing and questions are excellent, but his comments and refections from that time, academic and otherwise, do not always reflect Christian Orthodox teachings so follow Father Maximos' teachings.
Jason Caros is a husband and father and he served as a classical school headmaster from 2012-2024. He is a cradle Orthodox Christian who taught classes on Orthodox theology, worship and spirituality to high school students and adults at his former parish in Orlando, Florida.
HEAVEN ON EARTH
By Oliver Filotowksi
As the Mother of God and Saint John the Evangelist sailed the Aegean Sea on their way to Cyprus, strong winds blew their ship off course, taking them to the Grecian peninsula known at that time as Mt. Athos. Landing upon its shore, the Theotokos was awed by its beauty, inspiring her to bless it and ask her Son to make it her garden. She heard a voice from heaven, “Let this place be your inheritance and your garden, a paradise and a haven of salvation for those seeking to be saved.” From that moment, Mt. Athos was dedicated to the Theotokos, the sole woman permitted within its boundaries, and indeed, has proven to be a most fertile garden, bearing some of the sweetest fruits of the Orthodox Church: monastics, clergy, hierarchs, theologians, ascetics and, above all, saints.
In Greece, this monastic peninsula is known as the Holy Mountain (Agion Oros) and today, worldwide, it is honored as the bastion of Orthodox Christianity. Although dedicated to the Theotokos in the 1st century, the first few Christian ascetics, individuals willingly engaged in spiritual struggle, likely arrived in the 3rd or 4th century, fleeing distractions and worldly cares in pursuit of a singular goal: union with God. Gradually, Orthodox monastic dwellings were formed, consisting of communities of Orthodox Christian men who have left family, friends, and home to dedicate themselves wholly to God. The words of Christ to the wealthy young man were and are a frequent inspiration for such a departure: “If you want to be perfect, go, sell what you have and give to the poor, and you will have treasure in heaven; and come, follow Me” (Matt. 19:21).
Naturally, the encountering of like-minded individuals fostered spiritual bonds and offered practical benefits to living near one another; however, it was often the charisma of grace-filled elders that magnetized thirsty souls and ignited the rapid expansion of small communities into spiritual fortresses. These communities have often proved immovable and unyielding in the face of heresy from within and persecution from outside the Church, thus, preserving the fullness of Orthodoxy’s Faith and Traditions. Today, the Holy Mountain is home to 20 Orthodox monasteries of various nationalities (Greek, Serbian, Russian, Georgian, Bulgarian, and Romanian) and many smaller communities.
Every aspect of life in Orthodox monasteries is geared towards arriving at “theosis,” or union with God. This should be, and truly is, the calling of every Orthodox Christian; however, the monastic environment cultivates a more singular, deliberate pursuit of this virtuous calling. Upon arrival to a monastery, a monk willingly places himself under the guidance of the abbot, a wise and discerning monk experienced in the monastic life, who has been elected by the other monastics of the community to be their spiritual leader. Under this light yet salvific yoke of obedience, each monk is assigned a job based on the skills they bring from their former lives in the world, what would be of practical benefit to the brotherhood, and most importantly, what would bring about their spiritual formation and sanctification in Christ. Their work for the daily needs of the monastery is delicately balanced with the sacramental life in communal worship and personal prayer.
The divine services are of central importance in monastic life, infusing it with the grace of God and enabling monks to frequently participate in the Church’s life-giving Sacraments. Monasteries follow a rubric of services that differs from the order of services we encounter in parishes, which stems from the different lifestyles and responsibilities of monks and laymen. As one might imagine, the monastic services are more frequent, longer, and celebrated at times different than parish services.
Multiple services are celebrated daily, beginning in the early hours of the morning. Yet even then, many monks have been awake several hours beforehand within their “cell,” their dwelling, following their own personal prayer rule prescribed by the abbot. A pillar of monastic prayer life on the Holy Mountain is the Jesus Prayer: “Lord Jesus Christ, Son of God, have mercy on me, the sinner.” The Fathers of the Church recognized that our minds have an insatiable appetite, constantly needing to be occupied with something. With this understanding, the Prayer proves to be precisely what the mind needs, not giving it something, but Someone with Whom to be occupied. This simple prayer, which is repeated many times while being carefully attentive to its words, has profound depth and has aptly been described as the fulfillment of all the Gospels. Through its humble practice, our minds become fixed upon Christ, His Incarnation, His loving-kindness and mercy, and our deep need for both.
The spiritual vibrance, contemporary relevance and authentic and salvific life of the Orthodox Faith is revealed through the ceaseless blossoming of new saints in all times throughout the centuries. Perhaps, no other place in the world has brought forth more saints than the Holy Mountain. In the last century, some of the most well-known and beloved saints are spiritual offspring of the Holy Mountain: Saint Silouan the Athonite, Saint Paisios the Athonite, Saint Porphyrios of Kafsokalivia, Saint Joseph the Hesychast, Saint Sophrony of Essex, Saint Ephraim of Katounakia, and many more. Through their lives and teachings, we witness how man is transfigured by the grace of God and are shown that this is not intended for a select few, but for all members of the Orthodox Church. This is our spiritual inheritance, if we so desire!
Although the Holy Mountain is thousands of miles away, monastic life is not distant from us living in the world. Even here, the monastic life reaches out and embraces us through the ceaseless prayers of monastics for the salvation of all mankind, and it has the potential to become a central part of our own lives by the adoption of the monastic mindset, which places the salvation of man and struggling to lead a life pleasing to God above all else. When we do have the blessing of visiting monasteries, we encounter the truth of the expression, “light is the greatest disinfectant.” Certainly, through their words, but even more so by their example, monks, those radiant spiritual lights, help us to see ourselves and our spiritual infirmities more clearly, inspire us to amend our lives, and spur us to lead a more committed, humble, and authentic Orthodox life, separating ourselves from the superfluous things in the world that inhibit our divine ascent. Indeed, through this cleansing process, we bring the spirit of monasticism to our everyday lives and even to those around us. It is then, perhaps, that we will realize the words of Saint Seraphim of Sarov, “Acquire the Spirit of Peace and a thousand souls around you will be saved.”
Oliver Filotowski has made multiple visits to Mt. Athos and has as his spiritual father, a hieromonk from the Holy Mountain.